Bronchiolitis in children

INTRODUCTION

Bronchiolitis is a lower respiratory tract infection that occurs in children younger than two years old. Differential for rapid breathing and wheezing in child less than 2 years old, usually asthma only be diagnose >2 years old and with strong history of atopy. It is usually caused by a virus. The virus causes inflammation of the small airways (bronchioles) (figure 1). The inflammation partially or completely blocks the airways, which causes wheezing (a whistling sound heard as the child breathes out). This means that less oxygen enters the lungs, potentially causing a decrease in the blood level of oxygen.

Bronchiolitis is a common cause of illness and is the leading cause of hospitalization in infants and young children. Treatment includes measures to ensure that the child consumes adequate fluids and is able to breathe without significant difficulty. Most children begin to improve two to five days after first developing breathing difficulties, but wheezing can last for a week or longer. Bronchiolitis can cause serious illness in some children. Infants who are very young, born early, have lung or heart disease, or have difficulty fighting infections or handling oral secretions are more likely to have severe disease with bronchiolitis. It is important to be aware of the signs and symptoms that require evaluation and treatment.

Bronchiolitis is typically caused by a virus. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common cause.

In tropical and semitropical climates, the seasonal outbreaks usually are associated with the rainy season. (Nov-Jan)

Virtually everyone will have been infected with RSV by the age of three years. It is common to be infected more than once. however, subsequent infections are usually milder.

Children who are older than two years typically do not develop bronchiolitis, but can be infected with RSV.  It usually causes symptoms similar to those of the common cold or mild wheezing.

Bronchiolitis usually develops following one to three days of common cold symptoms, including the following:

●Nasal congestion and discharge.

●A mild cough.

●Fever (temperature higher than 100.4ºF or 38ºC). How to take temperature in a child?

●Decreased appetite.

As the infection progresses and the lower airways are affected, other symptoms may develop, including the following:

●Breathing rapidly (60 to 80 times per minute) or with mild to severe difficulty

●Wheezing, which usually lasts about seven days

●Persistent coughing, which may last for 14 or more days (persistent cough also may be caused by other serious illnesses that require medical attention)

Differential for persistent cough:

• recurrent resp infection
• post-specific resp infection (pertussis, RSV, mycoplasma)
• asthma
• suppurative lung disease (cystic fibrosis, ciliary dyskinesia or immune disease)
• recurrent aspiration (GERD)
• persistent endobronchial infection
• inhaled foreign body
• cigarette smoking (active or passive)
• TB
• Habit cough
• airway anomalies (tracheo-bronchomalacia, tracheo-oesophageal fistula)

●Difficulty feeding related to nasal congestion and rapid breathing, which can result in dehydration

assess dehydration in the child

Apnea (a pause in breathing for more than 15 or 20 seconds) can be the first sign of bronchiolitis in an infant. This occurs more commonly in infants born prematurely and infants who are younger than 2 months.

Signs of severe bronchiolitis include retractions (sucking in of the skin around the ribs and the base of the throat) (figure 2), nasal flaring (when the nostrils enlarge during breathing), and grunting. The effort required to breathe faster and harder is tiring. In severe cases, a child may not be able to continue to breathe on his or her own.

Low oxygen levels (called hypoxia) and blue-tinged skin (called cyanosis) can develop as the illness progresses. Cyanosis may first be noticed in the finger and toenails; ear lobes; tip of the nose, lips, or tongue; and inside of the cheek. Any of these signs or symptoms requires immediate medical evaluation.

A child who is grunting, appears to be tiring, stops breathing, or has cyanosis needs urgent medical attention. 

Contagiousness — The most common cause of bronchiolitis, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), is transmitted through droplets that contain viral particles; these are exhaled into the air by breathing, coughing, or sneezing. These droplets can be carried on the hands, where they survive and can spread infection for several hours. If someone with RSV on his or her hands touches a child's eye, nose, or mouth, the virus can infect the child. Adults infected with RSV can easily transmit the virus to the child or other adults.

A child with bronchiolitis should be kept away from other infants and individuals susceptible to severe respiratory infection (eg, those with chronic heart or lung diseases, those with a weakened immune system) until the wheezing and fever are gone.

The diagnosis of bronchiolitis is based upon a history and physical examination. Blood tests and x-rays are not usually necessary.

Emergent care — Parents should seek medical attention if the child seems to be worsening. A child who is grunting, appears to be tiring, stops breathing, or has blue-colored skin (cyanosis) needs urgent medical attention. Emergency medical services should be called, available in most areas of the United States by dialing 911. (See 'When to seek help' below.)

Severe bronchiolitis should be evaluated in an emergency department or clinic capable of handling urgent respiratory illnesses. This is a life-threatening illness and treatment should not be delayed for any reason.

Symptomatic care — There is no cure for bronchiolitis, so treatment is aimed at the symptoms (eg, difficulty breathing, fever). Treatment at home usually includes making sure the child drinks enough and saline nose drops (with bulb suctioning for infants).

Monitoring — Monitoring at home involves observing the child periodically for signs or symptoms of worsening. Specifically, this includes monitoring for an increased rate of breathing, worsening chest retractions, nasal flaring, cyanosis, a decreased ability to feed or decreased urine output. Parents should contact their child's healthcare provider to determine if and when an office visit is needed, or if there are any other questions or concerns. (See 'When to seek help' below.)

Fever control — Parents may give acetaminophen (sample brand names: Tempra, Tylenol) to treat fever if the child is uncomfortable. Ibuprofen (sample brand names: Advil, Motrin) can be given to children greater than six months of age. Aspirin should not be given to any child under age 18 years. cause Reye syndrome Parents should speak with their child's healthcare provider about when and how to treat fever.

Nose drops or spray — Saline nose drops or spray might help with congestion and runny nose. For infants, parents can try saline nose drops to thin the mucus, followed by bulb suction to temporarily remove nasal secretions (table 2). An older child may try using a saline nose spray before blowing the nose.

Instructions on using a bulb syringe

Nasal congestion from a cold can make it difficult for a young infant to breathe while eating. Mucus can be removed from the infant's nose with a bulb syringe.

Before using a bulb syringe, saline nose drops can be used to thin the mucus. Saline nose drops can be purchased in most pharmacies, or can be made at home by adding 1/4 teaspoon salt to 8 ounces (1 cup) of warm (not hot) water. Stir to dissolve the salt, and store the solution for up to 1 week in a clean container with a cover.

Place the infant on his or her back. Using a clean nose dropper, place 1 to 2 drops of saline solution in each nostril. Wait a short period.

Squeeze and hold the bulb syringe to remove the air. Gently insert the tip of the bulb syringe into one nostril, and release the bulb. The suction will draw mucus out of the nostril into the bulb.

Squeeze the mucus out of the bulb into a tissue.

Repeat suction process several times in each nostril until most mucus is removed.

Wash the dropper and bulb syringe in warm, soapy water. Rinse well, and squeeze to remove any water.

The bulb syringe can be used two to three times per day as needed to remove mucus. It is best to do this before feeding; the saline and suction process can cause vomiting after feeding.

Encourage fluids — Parents should encourage their child to drink an adequate amount of fluids; it is not necessary to drink extra fluids. Children often have a reduced appetite, and may eat less than usual. If an infant or child completely refuses to eat or drink for a prolonged period, urinates less often, or has vomiting episodes with cough, the parent should contact their child's healthcare provider.

Other therapies — Other therapies, such as antibiotics, cough medicines, decongestants, and sedatives, are not recommended. Cough medicines and decongestants have not been proven to be helpful, and sedatives can mask symptoms of low blood oxygen and difficulty breathing.

Coughing is one way for the body to clear the lungs, and normally does not need to be treated. As the lungs heal, the coughing caused by the virus resolves. Smoking in the home or around the child should be avoided because it can worsen a child's cough.

Antibiotics are not effective in treating bronchiolitis because it is usually caused by a virus. However, antibiotics may be necessary if the bronchiolitis is complicated by a bacterial infection, like an ear infection or bacterial pneumonia (very uncommon).

Sometimes, keeping the child's head elevated can reduce the work of breathing. A child may be propped up in bed with an extra pillow. Pillows should not be used with infants younger than 12 months of age.

Hospital care — Approximately 3 percent of children with bronchiolitis will require monitoring and treatment in a hospital. Most children receive monitoring of vital signs and supportive care, including supplemental oxygen and intravenous fluids, if necessary. Other treatments are individualized, based upon the child's needs and response to therapy.

Isolation precautions — Because the viruses that cause bronchiolitis are contagious, precautions must be taken to prevent spreading the virus to other patients and/orchildren. Parents may visit (and stay with the child) but siblings and friends should not. Toys, books, games, and other activities can be brought to the child's room. All visitors (nurses, doctors, parents) must wash their hands before and after leaving the room.

Feeding — Most infants and children can continue to eat, breastfeed, or drink normally while in the hospital. If the child is unable or unwilling to eat or drink adequately, the respiratory rate is too fast, or the child is having significant difficulty breathing or stops breathing, fluids and nutrition may be given into a vein (intravenously).

Treatments — Supplemental oxygen may be needed for children who are unable to get enough oxygen from room air; this is usually given by placing a tube (called a nasal cannula) under a child's nose or by placing a face mask over the nose and mouth. For infants, an oxygen head box (a clear plastic box) may be used. The child is tested periodically to determine the blood oxygen level when oxygen is turned off. The goal is to slowly reduce and then discontinue supplemental oxygen when the child is ready. If a child is severely ill and unable to breathe adequately on his or her own, or if the child stops breathing, a breathing tube (endotracheal tube) may be inserted into the mouth and throat. This is connected to a machine (called a ventilator) that breathes for the child at a regular rate. The use of an endotracheal tube and ventilator is a temporary measure that is discontinued when the child improves.

Discharge to home — Most children who require hospitalization are well enough to return home within three to four days. Children who require a machine to help them breathe usually need to stay in the hospital for four to eight days or longer before they are ready to go home.

Recovery — Most children with bronchiolitis who are otherwise healthy begin to improve within two to five days. However, wheezing persists in some infants for a week or longer, and it may take as long as four weeks for the child to return to his or her "normal" self. Recovery may take longer in younger infants and those with underlying medical problems (eg, prematurity, other lung diseases). The child should be kept out of daycare and/orschool until the fever and runny nose have resolved (ie, the time during which they are most contagious).